Research Paper Fusarium Wilt on Abaca Essays

Research Paper Fusarium Wilt on Abaca Essays Research Paper Fusarium Wilt on Abaca Paper Research Paper Fusarium Wilt on Abaca Paper 1995). The early symptoms of this disease include rusty brown streaks in the leaves which later turn blighted and water soaked and finally wilting of the whole plant. The internal symptoms are the vascular discoloration, water soaking and finally the rotting of pseudo- stem. Fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt may occur singly or together as a complex in the field and had contributed much to the devastation of abaca in major growing areas in the Philippines. Host plant resistance is the most effective means of controlling wilt diseases. But the development of a resistant plant however takes time, effort and many resources. Resistance in plants however can be induced using chemical and biological elicitors. Several studies have shown that certain chemicals can induce the resistance of plants and some of which are boost and salicylic acid. Boost is a novel synthetic chemical, benzo(1,2,3)thiadiazole-7-8-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester (BTH) was intially shown to induce acquired resistance in wheat (Gorlach, et al, 1996) and which is produced by Novartis and distributed in the Philippines by Syngenta. Aspirin or acetyl salicylic acid was also found to induce resistance in some plants (Gleason, 1999; Owen, 1996). Salicylic acid (SA) has been reported to be elevated on plants that exhibit SAR for example in cucumber (Metraux, et al, 1990), tobacco (Malamy, et al, 1990), and Arabidopsis (Uknes, et al, 1993). There are evidences that suggest that SA plays an important role in the transduction pathway leading to SAR. Recent studies however indicate that SA is not likely to be the systematically transmitted signal (Vernooij, et al, 1994). ] There are also biotic elicitors that have been reported to elicit resistance in plants which includes chitin and chitosan. Chitin is a safe material and was reported to induce resistance against soil-borne diseases ((Kuchitsu, et al, 1993). Moreover, chitin was reported to be used as soil fertilizer. Chitosan which can be extracted from chitin has anti-fungal activity against many plant pathogens (Herano, et al, 1990; El-mougy, et al, 2002). Moreover, chitosan is also reported to induce resistance against soil-borne fungi. Chitosan was also found to have anti-bacterial property and is capable of inducing resistance to the bacterial blight disease of rice cause Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Modina, 2007). Boost is a novel synthetic chemical, benzo(1,2,3)thiadiazole-7-8-carbothioic acid S-methyl ester (BTH) was intially shown to induce acquired resistance in wheat (Gorlach, et al, 1996) and which is produced by Novartis and distributed in the Philippines by Syngenta. Aspirin or acetyl salicylic acid was also found to induce resistance in some plants (Gleason, 1999; Owen, 1996). Salicylic acid (SA) has been reported to be elevated on plants that exhibit SAR for example in cucumber (Metraux, et al, 1990), tobacco (Malamy, et al, 1990), and Arabidopsis (Uknes, et al, 1993). There are evidences that suggest that SA lays an important role in the transduction pathway leading to SAR. Recent studies however indicate that SA is not likely to be the systematically transmitted signal (Vernooij, et al, 1994). ] This study therefore aimed to compare and contrast the efficacy of suspected elicitors of resistance in controlling the wilt disease complex in abaca. The efficacy of potential biological a nd chemical elicitors of systemic acquired resistance to control wilt disease complex of abaca caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense and Ralstonia solanacearum was also evaluated. METHODOLOGY Preparation and Sterilization of Culture Media Potato dextrose agar (PDA) for the culture of FOC was prepared by dissolving 39 grams dehydrated PDA to 1 liter dH2O in a double boiler and cooked until the agar dissolves in H2O. It was dispensed to 250 ml Erlenmeyer Flasks and test tubes. Nutrient agar for the culture of Ralstonia solanacearum was prepared by dissolving 3g beef extract, 5 grams peptone and 17g agar to 1 liter dH2O in a double boiler and cooked until agar dissolves in H2O. It was dispensed to 250 Erlenmeyer Flasks and test tubes. The media were sterilized in a pressure cooker at 15 lbs/in2 pressure or 121 °C temperature for 15 minutes. Sterile media were allowed to cool. PDA and NA in tubes were slanted and stored in the refrigerator until use. Collection, Isolation and Culture of FOC Isolation plates were prepared by melting the stored PDA in flasks, pouring into sterile Petri plates and allowed to solidify. Fusarium wilt– infected abaca was collected from the National Abaca Research Center and it was brought to the Plant Disease Diagnostic Laboratory for isolation of the pathogen. Infected tissues from the advancing portion of the disease were disinfected with 1% sodium hypochlorite and were planted onto solidified PDA in plates (4 sections per plate). After 2 or more days, mycelia that have radiated from the planted abaca tissue were cut aseptically using flamed sterilized flattened needle and were transferred to PDA slants where they were stored and maintained until use. Collection, Isolation and Culture of Ralstonia solanacearum Nutrient agar in flasks were melted and aseptically poured to Petri plates. The medium were allowed to solidify. The bacterial wilt pathogen, R. solanacaerum was isolated from a banana fruit infected with â€Å"Bugtok† disease. Infected tissues from the advancing portion of the disease were cut, disinfected with 1% hypochlorite and reused with sterile H20. The sections were then placed in sterile water in a test tube and allowed to stand for 10 minutes to allow the bacteria to ooze out of the tissue. A loopful of the resulting bacterial suspension was streaked onto the solidified NA on plates and incubated. After 2 days individual colonies were picked with sterile wire loop and transferred to NA slants to purify. The cultures were incubated for 2 days and stored in the refrigerator for future use. Procurement and Preparation of Test Plants Four weeks old tissue cultured abaca plantlets were procured from National Abaca Research Center (NARC). They were maintained in the vicinity of the Department of Pest Management and were given necessary care and maintenance such as watering, weeding, and fertilization. The plants were numbered and tagged according to the desired treatments. In numbering and tagging the plants, we gave them equal chances in belonging to a group. We did this through the drawn by lot method. Thus, we have used the technique randomization in giving names to the plants. Preparation and Application of Treatments The plants were sprayed with the different treatments (Fig. 1) at 15 days interval starting when the plants were 6 weeks old. Treatments| Illustration| T0 (Water)| | T1 (Fomes at 100ppm)| | T2 (Attenuated Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae)| | T3 (Aspirin or Acetyl Salicylic Acid at 100ppm)| | T4 (Boost at 100ppm)| | T5 (Nordox at 100ppm)| | Fig. 1. The different treatments used Fomes was prepared by oven drying (50? C for 3 days) and by pulverizing using mortar and pestle. After pulverizing, 0. 75g was obtained and was mixed with 750ml H20 to make a 100 ppm suspension. Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Xoo) was prepared by transferring an isolate of Xoo (courtesy of PDDL at VSU) in NA slants 2 days before its scheduled time of application. On the application time, 10ml sterile H20 was poured on the test tube slants and the bacteria were scraped using a wire loop without causing damage to the medium. Ten slants were used and the solution was diluted into a beaker to make 100 ml suspension. An approximately 650 ml H20 was added to have a total of 750 ml suspension. The suspension was heated for 5 minutes to attenuate the bacterium. Aspirin or Acetyl Salicylic Acid was prepared by making a stock solution. A tablet of aspirin was diluted to 1L H20 to make a 300 ppm suspension. Then, a volume of 37. 5ml was measured out from the stock and was added to 712. ml H20 to make a 100 ppm suspension. Boost was obtained from Syngenta Philippines. Two ml Boost was diluted and mixed to 1998 ml H20 to make a 2000 ppm suspension. A volume of 37. 5 ml was obtained out from the stock and was added to 712. 5 ml H20 to make a 100 ppm suspension. Nordox, copper-based fungicide with bactericidal activity was used as the positive check at the manufacturer’s recommended rate. It was prepared by weighing 1. 9g of Nordox and by mixing it thoroughly to 750 ml H2O. After preparing, the treatments were sprayed to the plants using a sprayit gun powered by an electric compressor starting from Water down to Nordox. Each plant equally received 50ml of the said treatments (Fig. 2). The experiment was laid in a Completely Randomized Design. The six treatments were replicated 3 times and 5 plantlets constituted one replicate making a total of 90 plantlets needed for the experiment. Two consecutive spray applications of the treatments at 15 days interval were done before pathogen inoculation and sprayings were done until the last disease scoring. Fig. 2 Application of treatments to the plants Preparation of FOC Inoculum The pure cultures were first examined under the microscope to confirm the presence of real FOC pathogen (Fig. ) before they were mass cultured for inoculation. FOC that was used for inoculation to test plants was cultured and mass produced in corn meal-sand medium (CMS) which was prepared by mixing 1 part ground corn every 20 parts of sand. The mixture was placed in glass jars about 2/3 full and moistened and covered with aluminum foil then bound with rubber band at rim (Fig 4). They were sterilized at 15 lbs/in2 pressure and 121 °C temperature for 1 hour. Pure culture of FOC from the PDA slant were aseptically seeded into the prepared CMS medium and incubated at room temperature until completely colonized by the fungus. Fig 3. Photomicrograph of FOC macroconidia and microconidia Fig 4. Corn meal-sand medium with FOC Inoculation of FOC CMS cultures of FOC were first mixed thoroughly on a tray to assure even distribution of the fungal spores to the CMS medium before inoculation. FOC was inoculated into the soil of each potted plant by incorporating 1 tbsp of the inoculum near the base of the abaca plantlet and covering the inoculum with soil. Inoculation was done 2 days after the second spraying of the different treatments. Preparation of Ralstonia solanacearum, the bacterial wilt pathogen Bacterial wilt pathogen was transferred to fresh NA slants. Two days after the isolation, each NA culture was mixed with 10ml dH2O and the pathogen was scraped using a wire loop without causing damage to the medium. Overall, 120ml of the bacterial suspension was used. One ml was injected to the stem of each plant. Bacterial Inoculation was done 12 days after FOC inoculation. Data Gathered The following data were gathered: A. Initial and Final Plant Height – This was gathered per plant basis before the application of treatments and inoculation of the pathogen and during the termination of the study. B. Percent infection – (No. of plants showing foliage yellowing or wilting / Total No. of plants) x 100 starting 1 week after inoculation and weekly until most of the plants have died in any of the treatments. C. Visual Disease Severity Rating – This was gathered using a devised scale below: We gathered this data at 1 week interval until the termination of the study. Rating| Description| 0| No wilting| 1| Slight yellowing of lower leaves| 2| Yellowing of most leaves but no dried leaves yet| 3| Extensive yellowing and moderate wilting| 4| Extensive wilting but plant still alive| | Plant totally dead| D. Percent Area of Vascular Discoloration – This was taken during the termination of the study wherein all the plants were uprooted and the pseudostems were sliced longitudinally (Fig 5). Each plant was rated using the following scale (Borines et al. 2007) Rating | Description| 0-1| No discoloration| 1-2| Isolated points of vascular discoloration| 2. 1-3| Discoloratio n up to 1/3 of vascular tissue| 3. 1-4| Discoloration between 1/3 – 2/3 of vascular tissue| 4. 1-5| Discoloration greater than 2/3 of vascular tissue| 5. -6| Total discoloration of vascular tissue| Fig. 5 Slicing of pseudostem longitudinally E. No. of surviving plants per replicate per treatment. (Gathered at the termination of the experiment. ) Data gathered were analyzed using simple CRD with three replications. Treatments were compared using Duncan’s Multiple Range Tests (DMRT). 9) Disposal of Inoculated Plants After the experiment, the inoculated plants were exposed to direct sunlight and burned when dried. RESULTS and DISCUSSION Table 1 shows the percent infected plants at 14, 21, and 28 days after inoculation. Based on the results, Boost produced significantly lower percentage infected plants compared to the control especially at 14 days after inoculation. At 21 and 28 days after inoculation, Boost still produced lower disease incidence although not statistically different from the control. Fomes, Boost and Nordox also showed lesser disease incidence values although not significantly different from the control. Table 1. Percent infected plants at 14, 21 and 28 days after inoculation Treatment| Percent Infected Plants| Days After Inoculation| 14 days| 21 days| 28 days| T0 (Control)| 73. 3 ab| 93. 33| 100| T1 (Fomes)| 66. 67 ab| 73. 33| 73. 33| T2 (Xoo)| 100. 00 a| 100. 00| 100| T3 (Aspirin)| 73. 33 ab| 100. 00| 100| T4 (Boost)| 26. 67 c| 60. 00| 80| T5 (Nordox)| 53. 33 bc| 66. 67| 83. 33| CV(%)| 26. 91| 26. 27| 21. 60| Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at 5% DMRT. Another parameter used to measure the effect of the treatments was the mean disease severity rat ing per plant (Table 2). Based on this parameter, Boost, Nordox and Fomes have lower means of disease severity compared to the Control especially at 21 days after inoculation. Xoo and Acetyl Salicylic Acid on the other hand have significantly higher means compared to Water. Thus the two treatments have even triggered the increase in wilt disease severity ratings of the plants. Table 2. Mean wilt severity rating per plant as affected by the different treatments Treatment| Mean Disease Severity Rating| Days After Inoculation| 14 days| 21 days| 28 days| T0 (Control)| 0. 93 c| 2. 47 ab| 3. 13 ab| T1 (Fomes)| 0. 80 c| 1. 53 bc| 2. 27 b| T2 (Xoo)| 2. 87 a| 3. 45 a| 3. 92 ab| T3 (Aspirin. )| 2. 07 b| 3. 20 a| 4. 33 a| T4 (Boost)| 0. 40 c | 1. 27 c| 2. 3 b| T5 (Nordox)| 0. 73 c| 1. 07 c| 2. 47 b| CV (%)| 27. 6| 25. 7| 27. 6| Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at 5% DMRT. The percent area of vascular discoloration per plant is shown in Table 3. This was gathered upon termination of the study. All plants were uprooted and the pseudostems were sliced longitudinally. This actually shows the internal manifestations of disease and effects of the treatments to the plants. Based on statistical analysis, Boost still consistently showed lesser percent area of vascular discoloration compared to Water (Fig. ) which further confirm its effectiveness in controlling the wilt disease complex. Fomes and Nordox also showed much lower percent area of vascular discoloration compared to control, Xoo and Aspirin. Table No. 3 Percent Area of Vascular Discoloration Treatment| Percent area of vascular discoloration| No. of Live Plants Remaining| T0 (Control)| 55. 27 ab| 3. 00 ab| T1 (Fomes)| 38. 47 b | 3. 33 ab| T2 (Xoo)| 79. 27 a| 2. 00 bc| T3 (Aspirin)| 80. 27 a| 1. 33 c| T4 (Boost)| 37. 67 b| 4. 00 a| T5 (Nordox)| 38. 47 ab| 3. 33 ab| CV (%)| 31. 37| 52. 18| Means followed by a common letter are not significantly different at 5% DMRT Fig. 6 Internal Vascular Discoloration of Plants (left-right) Control, Fomes, Xoo, Salicylic Acid, Boost, Nordox The number of live plants remaining was also gathered during the termination of the study and shown in Table 3. Boost, had the highest average number of remaining live plants followed by Fomes and Nordox. Aspirin had the lowest no. of live plants or highest mortality which was even higher than that of water (Fig. 8d, p. 24). The height of abaca plants is shown in Fig. 7. Based on the graph, the plants sprayed with Boost and Nordox have higher plant height compared to Conrol, Xoo, Fomes, and Aspirin. Among the parameters used to measure the effects of the different treatments, the mean disease severity rating on a per plant basis and mean percent area of vascular discoloration were able to differentiate more the effect of the different treatments and were considered more reliable compared to the rest of the parameters used. Fig. 7 Height of Abaca Plants at the start of the experiment, at 7, 14, 21 days and the final height before the termination of the study b c d ef Fig. 8. Group of abaca plants treated with a) water, b) Fomes, c) Xoo, d) Aspirin, e) Boost and f) Nordox. Boost is a commercially available elicitor of resistance in plants and it was found very effective in controlling the wilt disease complex in abaca. Boost, however is a little expensive, one spray cost P0. 65. Nordox is a commercial fungicide with bactericidal activity and it has als o reduced the wilt disease incidence and severity. This is a little cheaper (P0. 45) compared to Boost. A cost-effective control for the wilt disease complex was Fomes. It was able also to reduce disease incidence and severity. Although not as effective as Boost but, no cost has been incurred, except for the labor in gathering, drying and pulverizing. The use of Fomes as a biological elicitor of resistance in abaca to control wilt disease complex has been explored in this research. Most probably, being a fungus, the chitin in Fomes could be the elicitor of resistance. Kutchitsu et al (1993) reported that chitin induced resistance of plants. The active component of Fomes, that could elicit resistance in plants could be isolated in future research endeavor. CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS Boost (chemical elicitor) and Fomes (potential biological elicitor and Nordox (fungicide with bactericidal activity), were able to effectively control the fusarium wilt and bacterial wilt disease complex of abaca. Xoo and Aspirin were not able to control the disease but instead has aggravated the wilting of the plants. A follow-up study maybe conducted to re-evaluate the same elicitors for their effect on either fusarium wilt or bacterial wilt alone. Likewise, a study maybe conducted to further evaluate the potential of Fomes as biological elicitors of resistance to other diseases of abaca or to other plant diseases. Furthermore, several other indigenously occurring biological elicitors of resistance may be evaluated against the wilt diseases of abaca. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT First and foremost, we would like to extend our gratitude to all the people behind the success of this study. We would like to thank our adviser, Dr. Lucia Borines for sharing to us her knowledge, skills effort and even her time though with a hectic schedule. To Ms. Christine Advincula, Ms. Victoria Palermo and Ms. Robleyn Piamonte, thank you so much for patiently guiding and helping us everytime we need assistance especially when our adviser is on travel. Thank you also to Mr. George Valenzona, for the analysis of our data, and Mr. Marlon Tambis and Mr. Victor Calunangan for the computer assistance. In addition, our heartfelt thanks is extended to our loving parents who supported us in our financial needs and for enlightening our faith that we could be able to finish this research on time. No words indeed can express how much we owe you this success. REFERENCES 1) BASTASA, G. N. and A. A. BALIAD. 2005. Biological control of fusarium wilt of abaca (Fusarium oxysporum) with Trichoderma and Yeast. http://cropscience Philippines. blogspot. om/2006/032005-vol30-no-2-v30n02p01-02. html 2) BORINES, L. M. 2008. Efficacy of chemical activators of systemic acquired resistance for the control of bacterial blight and diseases of rice. Paper presented during the 2008 RD Regional Conference held at Baybayon ni Agalon, Albuera Leyte, June 17-18, 2008. 3) BORINES, L. M. SALAMAT, E. E. CARDINES, R. B. 2007. Reaction of abaca (Musa textiles Nee) access ions and varieties to Fusarium wilt caused by Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. cubense. (E. F. Smith) Snyd. And Hanns. Annals of Tropical Research. Volume 29 (No. 1). 4) EL-MOUGY, N. S. , R. ABB-L-KAREEM and M. A. ABB-ALLA. 2002. Postharvest Diseases Control: Preventive Effect of Chitosan and Bioagents Against Green and Gray Moulds of Apple Fruits. Egypt. J. Phytopathol. , 30: 99-113. 5) FIDA. 2007. http://fida. da. gov. ph/Abaca6. html/ 6) GLEASON, M. 1999. Sick Plants take aspirin. extension. iastate. edu/newsrel/1999/jan99/jan9901. htm 7) GORLACH, J. , S. VOLRATH, G. KNAUF-BEITER, G. HENGY, and U, BECKHOVE, K. H. KOGEN M. OOSTENDORP, T. STAUB, E. WARD and H. KESSMANN. 1996. Benzothiadiazole, a novel class of inducers of systematic acquired resistance, activates gene expression and disease resistance in wheat. Plant Cell 8:629-643. 8) HERANO, S. , C. ITAKURA, H. SEINO, Y. AKIYAMA,I. NOTATA, N. KANBARA and N. KAWAKAMI. (1990). Chitosan as an Ingredient for Domestic Animal Feeds. J. Agric. Food Chem. , 38:1214-1217. 9) KUTCHITSU, K. , M. KIKUYAMA and N. SHIBUYA. 1993. N-acetylchito-oligosaccharides, Biotic Elicitor for Phytoalexin Production, Induced Transient Membrane Depolarization in Suspension-Cultured Rice Cells. Protoplasma. 174:79-81. 10) MALAMY, J. , CARR, J. P. , KLESSIG, D. F. , and RASKIN, I. (1990). Salicylic Acid: A Likely Endogenous Signal in the Resistance Response of Tobacco to Viral Infection. Science 250,1002-1004. 11) METRAUX, J. -P. , SIGNER, H. , RYALS, J. , WARD, E. , WYSS-BENZ, M. , GAUDIN. J. , RASCHDORF, K. , SCHMID, E. , BLUM, W. ,and INVERARDI, B. (1990). Increase in Salicylic Acid at the Onset of Systemic Acquired Resistance in Cucumber. Science 250, 1004-1006. 12) MODINA, IVY M. 2007. Antimicrobial Property of Chitosan and Induction of Systemic Acquired Resistance for the control of Rice Bacterial Blight caused by Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzae (Swings et al. ). B. S. Thesis, Visayas State University, Visca, Baybay City, Leyte. 38pp. 13) OWEN, M. 1996. Plants feeling under Weather? Give them Aspirin Water. plantea. com/plant-aspirin. htm 14) UKNES, S. , WINTER, A. , DELANEY, T. , VERNOOIJ, B. , MORSE, A. , FRIEDRICH, L. , NYE, G. , POTTER, S. , WARD, E. , and RYALS, J. (1993). Biological Induction of Systemic Acquired Resistance in Arabidopsis. Mol. Plant-Microbe Interact. 6,692-698. 15) VERNOOIJ. B. , FRIEDRICH, L. , MORSE, A. , REIST, R. , KOLDITZ-JAWHAR, R. , WARD, E. , UKNES, S. , KESSMANN, H. , and RYALS, J. (1994). Salicylic Acid is not the Translocated Signal Responsible for Inducing Systemic Acquired Resistance but is Required in Signal Transduction. Plant Cell 6,959-965. .

Free sample - First Crusade. translation missing

First Crusade. First CrusadeIntroduction â€Å"Since the period of Constantine, Christians from all works of life and every place had gone on pilgrimages to the Holy Land, Jerusalem. Even though Moslems had ruled Jerusalem since 638, Christians were still allowed to visit the city† (Runciman, 13). Runciman, (45) illustrates that, by the 11th century, Muslims adherence changed the situation. By the time the number and frequency of pilgrimages to the holy land went up, the Seljuk Turks took over control of Jerusalem and stopped pilgrimages activities. This acted angered all Christians and prompted the need for the crusade. This point in time Pope Urban inspired the people to fight and regain the holy land. I write this letter with both pride and humility. This is because as a Knight who survived and reached Jerusalem I give thanks to almighty God for the great protection He gave me during this dangerous period of crusade. The history of crusade is vividly clear in both my mind and soul. As night survivor I have mixed reaction on the happening during this trying periods in Christian calendar. This is because I dearly cherish the fact that I participated on the event and at the same survived. â€Å"The crusade was so much inevitable since in the 7th century the Muslims took control of the holy city, Jerusalem and in the 11th century they started to hassle and interfere with Christian pilgrims and teaching in the Jerusalem area† (Edgington, 39). To the Christians in Europe, Jerusalem was a heavenly city, the center of their existence and they did not take lightly to being pushed out. In this regard, Popes encouragement, religious indulgences, and promise of eternal merit provoked t housands of Christians in Europe to enroll in this inevitable holy military to fight for the cause and that why I was part of this event. The European involved so much because Israel is part of Europe and since Christianity has its strong base in Israel and Jerusalem is a holy city. In this regard, the interference of the Christians in Israel by the Muslim prompted the intervention of Christians from Europe. It was a scaring scene to witness since people killed each other like wild animals. A large group of Christians formed a small organized military which was called the Crusaders. They were out to recapture the Holy land from the Muslims, and dedicated their lives to this. They were identified by red cloth that was sewn on their garments in the form of a cross. This showed that crusaders were the soldiers of Christ. The name crusaders was derived from the Latin word crux meaning cross and form the basis why Christians always carry a cross (Runciman, 1951, p.39). The Crusaders action and commitment was purely based on strong Christian beliefs more than any reasons (Runciman, 1951, p.24). The Crusaders on the other hand resurrected an older tradition of the pilgrimage to the Holy Land, which was often imposed as a reconciliation of ones-self. They assumed two roles: pilgrims and soldiers. â€Å"Armed pilgrims would normally not be accepted, but in this case they were, because they were fighting for the Christian Holy Land† Runciman (93). â€Å"Groups of crusaders rampaged through the streets of Jerusalem, killing everyone they came upon† (Runciman 112). â€Å"Some of the locals in Jerusalem took shelter in the Dome of the Rock where Tancred, with an eye towards the ransom money, promised them his protection† Runciman (113). Even though it was difficult, men not under his command tore through the al-Aksa Mosque and slaughtered its occupants (Runciman, 113). Conclusion The crusade was ultimately justified in that period in time since religion is quite important to human life and therefore any person who denies one of these rights is equivalent to killing him or her. Towards this it is worth fight for. Works cited Edgington, Susan. The first crusade: the capture of Jerusalem in AD 1099. The library of the Middle Ages .London: The Rosen Publishing Group, 2004 Runciman, Steven. A History of the Crusades: The First Crusade and the foundation of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Volume 1 of A History of the Crusade. New York: CUP Archive, 1951 Runciman, Steven. The First Crusade. New York: Cambridge University Press, 2005

Between Self expression and commercialization - the sixth generation Essay

Between Self expression and commercialization - the sixth generation - Essay Example Many of the Fifth Generation filmmakers also felt this†¦.self-sufficiency and commercialization, and had to reconsider their positions† (13). From an ideology-centered position, the directors were moving toward to a more individual centered stance. Individuals’ well and woe, as the subject, began to occupy the central place more and more in a movie. Referring to this new orientation, Peterson says, â€Å"The so called 5th generation – included Chen Kaige and Zhang Yimou, the filmmakers we now associate with China’s cinematic revival† (Peterson 3). Though they felt the impulse to explore their ‘self’ as a nation, they, unlike the Sixth Generation Film directors, carefully avoid any direct collision with the dominant political culture. Struggle between Self-expression and Commercialization Choosing to follow their own ways posed a number of risks for these film makers in the 1990s. First, they had to depend on private finance, since d epending on the governmental budget necessarily would bind them to follow the political guidance that often appeared to be contradictory to their free self-expressive zeal, as Peisa says, â€Å"For the cinema, the beginning of the 1990’s was, on the one hand a time of ever intensifying commercialism and on the other hand a politically sensitive time.† (13) Also depending on private financing was not that easy since it often was not as sufficient as the governmental allowances were. Second, commercializing posed to be a potential challenge for them. Shifting from the government fund to private sponsorship necessarily demanded a significant return from the making cost. There were challenges too for the self-expressionist film makers of the 1990s. The most common challenge was to win a market that had already been overly saturated with the supply of ideological but cheaply popular movies in that decade. Movies enriched with elegant theme and taste needed to be fully self- expressionist and self exploring in order to be popular among the majority of the moviegoers: a strategy that was bound to go against the political interests and culture of the era. Therefore avoiding the political wrath, these directors â€Å"began, for the first time in China, to realize their movies with private capital and without submitting the work for the censorship approval; hence they had to find alternative ways to show those works† (Gagliardi). In the beginning of the 1990s, one of crucial alternatives for the moviemakers was to enter into international market, as Gagliardi says, â€Å"One of these ways was the international film festival circuit where the movies found positive criticism and foreign producers† (Gagliardi). In spite of the government’s ban and censorship, the Sixth Generation movies that were critically appraised by the West made a massive infiltration into the country through mostly piracy. With the modernization of

Position paper Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Position paper - Essay Example However, the Republicans were not admit their trounce and they demand for the recount of votes. Tilden had attained 184 votes that was less than that what is required to get success, whereas the Hayes got only 165 votes. An Electoral Commission was composed of 5 senators, 5 representatives, and 5 justices of Supreme Court; 8 of which were Republicans and 7 of which were Democrats. The commission awarded the Presidency to Hayes (Ralph, 5). Infuriated by this decision, Democrats threatened to block Hayes inauguration. A compromise was arranged in February between Democrats and Republicans over the matter. In exchange for Hayes to become President, the Republicans assured to be more apposite with money for Southern internal improvements, to allow a Southerner to Hayess cabinet, and to pursue a policy of noninterference in southern affairs The election of 1876 was one of the most controversial presidential elections in the history of the United States of America, second only to that of 2001. The result, and subsequent effects, of the election are the main reason why the year 1876 was the last time for nearly a century that states of the south voted Republican. The issue at hand: to continue Reconstruction, or not to continue Reconstruction, that was the question. Southern Military Reconstruction had dwindled considerably over the years after 1869; by the time of the 1876 election, only Louisiana, South Carolina, and Florida were occupied (Guttman, 67). Once the troops had been removed from the other once-Confederate states, however, the biracial Republican state governments that had been established under reconstruction soon collapsed and were replaced by white-only (non-sympathetic for freedmen and poor white) democratic administrations. Into this situation entered the two presidential candidates, Samuel Tilden and Rutherford Hayes. The first results on Election Day indicated a clear victory for the

The Conflicting Societies in Lord of the Flies Essay -- Lord of the Fl

The Conflicting Societies in Lord of the Flies Throughout the novel Lord of the Flies by William Golding, many different conflicting societies develop. These groups of young English schoolboys have conflicts between them for many different reasons. Some of them are so spread apart in age that their beliefs and actions are very different. Other groups are conflicting because they have different opinions about who the leader of the entire group should be. The groups also argue about what their priorities should be while trapped on the island. These conflicts continue to grow until the very end, when one group finally gains supremacy. From the very beginning it can be seen that the boys have already begun to divide into two groups. When Ralph calls the first meeting the boys have together by summoning them with a conch shell, he decides they should vote on a leader. A boy named Jack Merridew thinks that he should be the chief because he is "chapter chorister and head boy." (22) Another boy nominates Ralph for leader, because he is the one that called for the meeting. When it comes time to vote, the choir members vote for Jack, while all the other boys vote for Ralph. After he is elected leader, Ralph tells Jack that he is in charge of his choir. Jack tells Ralph that they will be the hunters, and Ralph agrees. This causes the boys to be divided into one group led by Ralph, and the hunting group made up of the choir members, led by Jack Merridew. Being organized and civilized is very important to Ralph. He dec... ...cause a Navy ship spots the fire, and rescues the boys. The novel Lord of the Flies shows how one group, when put under certain circumstances, can be completely transformed. The group starts out as a group of schoolboys who try to work together in order to survive. They try to use the skills they have been taught as civilized human beings to do whatever they can to be rescued. However, things fall apart very quickly. They lose sight of what they are trying to accomplish, and lose hope of being rescued. The evil nature within the boys comes through, taking over their minds. All they can think about now is hunting and killing. Even the most responsible ones are transformed into savages, or they are murdered.

“Lines Written in Early Spring” Analysis Essay

Lines Written in Early Spring by William Wordsworth is a comparison of the state of nature to the state of mankind. This fits into the Romantic period because of how many of Wordsworth’s poems represented the revolt against contemporary English poetry, which he believed should have been based on true emotion, rather than intellect and style. There is evidence that Wordsworth is writing about nature and the poor state mankind when he writes: â€Å"In that sweet mood when pleasant thoughts bring sad thoughts to the mind† (Stanza 1, Lines 3-4). Also, he suggests that mankind and nature should not be as different as they are in terms of happiness, when he writes: â€Å"To her fair works did nature link the human soul that through me ran; And much it greaves my heart to think what man has made of man† (Stanza 2, Lines 7-8). Wordsworth makes use of many literary devices in Lines Written in Early Spring. Personification is the most common of literary devices used. Examples of this are shown when he writes: â€Å"And ’tis my faith that every flower Enjoys the air it breathes† (Stanza 3, Lines 11-12). He is giving a flower the human characteristic of enjoying the air it â€Å"breathes†. Another example of personification in this poem is when Wordsworth writes: â€Å"The budding twigs spread out their fan, To catch the breezy air† (Stanza 5, Lines 17-18). In this verse he is giving budding twigs the human characteristic of spreading out to catch breezy air. Wordsworth also describes nature as a being rather than a thing when he writes: â€Å"If this belief from heaven be sent, If such be Nature’s holy plan† (Stanza 6, Lines 21-22). In this verse he describes nature as having the ability to plan. This poem also reflects on Wordsworth appreciation and love for nature, as he sees it as a force rather than just a thing. This poem is a good representation of its time period because it gives insight into how many people neglected nature, and furthermore, gives insight into the troubles and lifestyles of people during the Romantic Era.

The Development Of Human Growth And Development Essay

Human growth is a fact of life we all experience it whether we want to or not. It is what we are expected to do. There are many theories that are associated with human growth and development but one thing that remains true throughout is that all humans go through stages of development from birth to death. We all experience change in our life times. These changes help to shape us as human beings and hopefully as well adjusted human beings. Everything from our environment to our learning styles to our interactions with others can be described as human development and growth. Our interactions with scripture and how we interpret it is also part of our development. The Bible should play an important role in our development. It should be one of the many factors that contribute to it. We, as Christians, should learn what the bible says about human growth and development so that we may pass it on to future generations. Since we are relentlessly trying to explore human behavior, it should seem reasonable to Christians that their source of knowledge, the bible, should be used as the textbook on intellect and human behavior. This should be the most authoritative textbook on the subject of human behavior. It is respected, it is impartial, and should be the final word on the subject. It should not matter whether people accept the principles of God s Word or whether they agree with them or not, because every one (young, old, rich, poor, black, white, legal or illegal) areShow MoreRelatedPsy Human Growth And Development1488 Words   |  6 Pagesï » ¿ Human Growth and Development Name: Institution Affiliation: Human Growth and Development Introduction According to Jean Piaget’s theory of Cognitive Development children’s cognitive development formal operations is established at the cognitive development stage of about age 12 to 15 years. 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